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Neo-Pagan (literature)

Neo-Pagan (literature)

Neopagan is a term for a type of vital philosophy expressed in 20th century literary criticism. This use does not indicate any literal paganism in the religious sense at all. It connotes, rather, a form of positive existentialism comprising an attitude to the environment in which the immediate is indulged in to the fullest, with tomorrow left to fend for itself. To quote from Cyril Connolly's introduction to the first English edition of Albert Camus' L'etranger: 'Meursault represents the neo-pagan, a reversion to Mediterranean man as once he was in Corinth or Carthage or Alexandria or Tarshish, as he is today in Casablanca or Southern California. He is sensual and well-meaning, profoundly in love with life, whose least pleasures, from a bathe to a yawn, afford him complete and silent gratification. He lives without anxiety in a continuous present and has no need to think or to express himself; there is no Nordic why-clause in his pact with nature.' By this definition, Ernest Hemingway's philosophy can be construed as neo-pagan, becoming explicitly so towards the end of his life in True at First Light in which he advocates an ancient hunter religion based upon Gitche Manitou, in contrast to Islamic monotheism. This interpretation of paganism as existence in a 'continuous present' is wryly mocked by Dorothy Parker in her poem The Flaw in Paganism. [http://poetry.poetryx.com/poems/4966/] Category:Literary criticism

Literary criticism

Literary criticism is the study, discussion, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often informed by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of its methods and goals. Though the two activities are closely related, literary critics are not always, and have not always been, theorists. Modern literary criticism is often published in essay or book form. Academic literary critics teach in literature departments and publish in academic journals, and more popular critics publish their criticism in broadly circulating periodicals such as the New York Times Book Review, the New York Review of Books, the London Review of Books, The Nation, and The New Yorker.

History of literary criticism

Classical and medieval criticism

Literary criticism has probably existed for as long as literature. Aristotle wrote the Poetics, a typology and description of literary forms with many specific criticisms of contemporary works, in the 4th century BC. Poetics developed for the first time the concepts of mimesis and catharsis, which are still crucial in literary study. Plato's attacks on poetry as imitative, secondary, and false were formative as well. Later classical and medieval criticism often focused on religious texts, and the several long religious traditions of hermeneutics and textual exegesis have had a profound influence on the study of secular texts.

Renaissance criticism

The literary criticism of the Renaissance developed classical ideas of unity of form and content into a literary neoclassicism which proclaimed literature to be central to culture and entrusted the poet or author with the preservation of a long literary tradition. Much more could be said about pre-19th-century literary interpretation.

19th-century criticism

The British Romantic movement of the early nineteenth century brought new aesthetic ideas to the study of literature, including the idea that the object of literature did not always have to be beautiful, noble, or perfect, but that literature itself could elevate a common subject to the level of the sublime. German Romanticism, which followed closely after the late development of German classicism, emphasized an aesthetic of fragmentation which can seem startlingly modern to a reader of English literature, and valued Witz – that is, "wit" or "humor" of a certain sort – more highly than the apparently serious Anglophone Romanticism. The late nineteenth century brought several authors better known for their critical writings than for their own literary work, such as Matthew Arnold.

The New Criticism

However important all of these aesthetic movements were as antecedents, current ideas about literary criticism derive almost entirely from the new direction taken in the early twentieth century. Early in the century the school of criticism known as Russian Formalism, and slightly later the New Criticism in Britain and America, came to dominate the study and discussion of literature. Both schools emphasized the close reading of texts, elevating it far above generalizing discussion and speculation about either authorial intention (to say nothing of the author's psychology or biography, which became almost taboo subjects) or reader response. This emphasis on form and precise attention to "the words themselves" has persisted, after the decline of these critical doctrines themselv

Theory

In the British and American literary establishment, the New Criticism was more or less dominant until the late 1960s. Around that time Anglo-American university literature departments began to witness a rise of a more explicitly philosophical literary theory, influenced by structuralism, then post-structuralism, and other kinds of Continental philosophy. It continued until the mid-1980s, when interest in "theory" peaked. Many later critics, though undoubtedly still influenced by theoretical work, have been comfortable simply interpreting literature rather than writing explicitly about methodology and philosophical presumptions.

The current state of literary criticism

Today interest in literary theory and Continental philosophy coexists in university literature departments with a more conservative literary criticism of which the New Critics would probably have approved. Acrimonious disagreements over the goals and methods of literary criticism, which characterized both sides taken by critics during the "rise" of theory, have declined (though they still happen), and many critics feel that they now have a great plurality of methods and approaches from which to choose. Some critics work largely with theoretical texts, while others read traditional literature; interest in the literary canon is still great, but many critics are also interested in minority and women's literatures, while some critics influenced by cultural studies read popular texts like comic books or pulp/genre fiction. Many literary critics also work in film criticism or media studies. Some write intellectual history; others bring the results and methods of social history to bear on reading literature.

Bibliography

- Encyclopedia of literary critics and criticism, ed. by Chris Murray, London [etc.] : Fitzroy Dearborn, 1999

External link

- [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-71 Dictionary of the History of Ideas:] Literary Criticism
- [http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0908430.html Truman Capote Award for Literary Criticism] Award Winners ja:文芸評論 Category:Literary criticism Category:Social philosophy Category:Aesthetics

Paganism

Paganism (from Latin paganus) and Heathenry are catch-all terms which have come to connote a broad set of spiritual/religious beliefs and practices of a natural religion, as opposed to the Abrahamic religions. These beliefs, which are not necessarily compatible with each other, are usually characterized by polytheism and animism. Often, the term has pejorative connotations, comparable to infidel and Kafir in Islam. Kafir labelled their non-Muslim neighbours (such as this Kapsiki diviner) Kirdi, or "pagans".]]

Etymology

Pagan

The term pagan is from Latin paganus, an adjective originally meaning "rural", "rustic" or "of the country". As a noun, paganus was used to mean "country dweller, villager". "Peasant" is a cognate, via Old French paisent. ([http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999%2e04%2e0062&query=id%3dpagus#id,pagus Harry Thurston Peck, Harper's Dictionary of Classical Antiquity, 1897; "pagus"]. In their distant origins, these usages derived from pagus, "province, countryside", cognate to Greek πάγος "rocky hill", and, even earlier, "something stuck in the ground", as a landmark: the root pag- means "fixed" and is also the source of the words "page", "pale" (stake), and "pole", as well as "pact" and "peace". Later, through metaphorical use, paganus came to mean 'rural district, village' and 'country dweller' and, as the Roman Empire declined into military autocracy and anarchy, in the 4th and 5th centuries it came to mean "civilian", in a sense parallel to the English usage "the locals". It was only after the Late Imperial introduction of serfdom, in which agricultural workers were legally bound to the land (see Serf), that it began to have negative connotations, and imply the simple ancient religion of country people, which Virgil had mentioned respectfully in Georgics. Like its approximate synonym heathen (see below), it was adopted by Middle English-speaking Christians as a slur to refer to those too rustic to embrace Christianity. Neoplatonists in the Early Christian church attempted to Christianize the values of sophisticated pagans such as Plato and Virgil. This had some influence among the literate class, but did little to counter the more general prejudice expressed in "pagan". While pagan is attested in English from the 14th century, there is no evidence that the term paganism was in use in English before the 17th century. The OED instances Edward Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776): "The divisions of Christianity suspended the ruin of paganism." The term was not a neologism, however, as paganismus was already used by Augustine.

Heathen

Heathen is from Old English hæðen "not Christian or Jewish", (c.f. Old Norse heiðinn). Historically, the term was probably influenced by Gothic haiþi "dwelling on the heath", appearing as haiþno in Ulfilas' bible as "gentile woman," (translating the Greek in Mark 7:26). This translation probably influenced by Latin paganus, "country dweller", or it was chosen because of its similarity to the Greek ethne, "gentile". It has even been suggested that Gothic haiþi is not related to "heath" at all, but rather a loan from Armenian hethanos, itself loaned from Greek ethnos.

Terminology

Common Word Usage

The term has historically been used as a pejorative by adherents of monotheistic religions (such as Judaism, Christianity and Islam) to indicate a disbeliever in their religion. "Paganism" is also sometimes used to mean the lack of (an accepted monotheistic) religion, and therefore sometimes means essentially the same as atheism. "Paganism" frequently refers to the religions of classical antiquity, most notably Greek mythology or Roman religion, and can be used neutrally or admiringly by those who refer to those complexes of belief. However, until the rise of Romanticism and the general acceptance of freedom of religion in Western civilization, "paganism" was almost always used disparagingly of heterodox beliefs falling outside of the established political framework of the Christian Church. It has more recently (from the 19th century) been used admiringly by those who believe the monotheistic religions to be confining or colourless. "Pagan" came to be equated with a popular, Christianized sense of "epicurean" to signify a person who is sensual, materialistic, self-indulgent, unconcerned with the future and uninterested in sophisticated religion. The word was usually used in this worldly sense by those who were drawing attention to the limitations of paganism, as when G.K. Chesterton wrote: "The pagan set out, with admirable sense, to enjoy himself. By the end of his civilization he had discovered that a man cannot enjoy himself and continue to enjoy anything else." Perhaps such usages reflect more light on Victorians than on the world of Antiquity.

Heathenry

"Heathen" (Old English hæðen) is a translation of paganus. The term is used for Germanic paganism, or Germanic Neopaganism, in particular. Originating with the Jastorf culture, the Germanic tribes were distributed over Eastern and Central Europe by the 5th century, and their dialects ceased to be mutually intelligible from around that time. Christianization of the Germanic peoples took place from the 4th (Goths) to the 6th (Anglo-Saxons, Alamanni) or 8th (Saxons) centuries on the continent, and from the 9th to 12th centuries in Iceland and Scandinavia.

Pagan classifications

Pagan subdivisions coined by Isaac Bonewits [http://www.neopagan.net/PaganDefs.html]
- Paleo-Paganism: A retronym coined to contrast with "neopaganism", denoting a pagan culture that has not been disrupted by other cultures. The term applies to Hinduism, Shinto, pre-Migration period Germanic paganism as described by Tacitus, and Graeco-Roman religion.
- Meso-Paganism: A group, which is, or has been, significantly influenced by monotheistic, dualistic, or nontheistic worldviews, but has been able to maintain an independence of religious practices. This includes Native Americans and Australian Aborigine Bushmen, Viking Age Norse paganism, Freemasonry, Rosicrucianism, Theosophy, Spiritualism, as well as Sikhism, and the many Afro-Diasporatic faiths like Haitian Vodou, and Santería.
- Neo-Paganism: An attempt by modern people to reconnect with nature, pre-Christian religions, or other nature-based spiritual paths. This definition includes such religions as Ásatrú, Neo-Druidism, and Wicca.

Pagan religions

- Ancient Greek religion
- Roman religion
- Finnish paganism
- Ancient Near East Paganism
- Paganism in the Eastern Alps
- Uniterranism
- Asatru

Neo-pagan religions

Neopaganism

In another sense, as used by modern practitioners, paganism is a polytheistic, panentheistic or pantheistic often nature-based religious practice, but again can be atheism sometimes as well. This includes reconstructed religions such as revivalist Hellenic polytheism and Ásatrú, as well as more recently founded religions such as Wicca c. 1960, and these are normally categorised as "Neopaganism". Although many Neopagans often refer to themselves simply as "Pagan", for purposes of clarity this article will focus on the ancient religion, while Neopaganism is discussed in its own article. This also includes religions such as Forn Sed, Celtic Neo-druidism, Longobardic odinism, Lithuanian Romuva, and Slavic Rodoverie that claim to revive an ancient religion rather than reconstruct it, though in general the difference is not absolutely fixed. Many of these revivals, Wicca, Asatru and Neo-druidism in particular, have their roots in 19th century Romanticism and retain noticeable elements of occultism or theosophy that were current then, setting them apart from historical rural (paganus) folk religion. The Íslenska Ásatrúarfélagið is a notable exception in that it was derived more or less directly from remnants in rural folklore. Still, some practitioners even of syncretized directions tend to object to the term "Neopaganism" for their religion as they consider what they are doing not to be a new thing. It must be said, also, that since the 1990s, the number of reconstructionist movements that reject romantic or occult influences has increased, even if those Neopagans who make a conscious effort to separate pre-Christian from romantic influences are still a minority.

Modern nature religion

Many current pagans in industrial societies base their beliefs and practices on a connection to Nature, and a divinity within all living things, but this may not hold true for all forms of paganism, past or present. Some believe that there are many deities, while some believe that the combined subconscious spirit of all living things forms the universal deity. Paganism predates modern monotheism, although its origins are lost in prehistory. Ancient paganism, which tended in many cases to be a deification of the local deity, as Athena in Athens, saw each local emanation as an aspect of an Olympian deity during the Classical period and then after Alexander to syncretize the deity with the political process, with "state divinities" increasingly assigned to various localities, as Roma personified Rome. Many ancient regimes would claim to be the representative on earth of these gods, and would depend on more or less elaborate bureaucracies of state-supported priests and scribes to lend public support to their claims. This is something paganism shares with more 'mainstream' revealed religions, as can be seen in the history of the Catholic church, the Church of England and the ancient and current trends in Islam. In one well-established sense, paganism is the belief in any non-monotheistic religion, which would mean that the Pythagoreans of ancient Greece would not be considered pagan in that sense, since they were monotheist, but not in the Abrahamic tradition. In an extreme sense, and like the pejorative sense below, any belief, ritual or pastime not sanctioned by a religion accepted as orthodox by those doing the describing, such as Burning Man, Halloween, or even Christmas, can be described as pagan by the person or people who object to them.

External links

- James J. O'Donnell, "[http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/jod/texts/demise.html The Demise of Paganism]," Traditio 35(1979), 45-88
- [http://www.wwpn.org/Pages/pagan_faq.htm WorldWide Pagan Network Paganism FAQ] (neopagan)
- [http://www.paganassociation.co.uk Pagan Associatin UK] (neopagan)
- [http://www.uniterran-church.org The Universal Terran Church]
- [http://www.religioustolerance.org/ Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance]
- [http://www.cuups.org/ Covenant of Unitarian Universalist Pagans] (neopagan)
- [http://paganwiki.org/ Pagan Wiki]
- [http://www.sacredhearth.com/Whatispagan.html What is Pagan Religion?] Category:Christian history Category:Paganism

Cyril Connolly

Cyril Connolly (10 September 1903 - 26 November 1974) was an English man of letters.

Life

He was born in Coventry in Warwickshire to a wealthy family of Anglo-Irish extraction. He was educated at St Cyprian's School and Eton College, at both of which he was an exact contemporary of George Orwell, who remained a life-long friend. Connolly later attended Balliol College, Oxford. A regular contributor to the leftist New Statesman in the 1930s, Connolly went on to co-edit, with Stephen Spender and Peter Watson, the influential literary magazine Horizon from 1939 to 1950. He was at one time the literary editor for The Observer, and, after 1950, the chief book reviewer for the London Sunday Times. Connolly wrote only one novel, The Rock Pool (1935) a satirical work which was generally well received. Perhaps his best known work is the autobiography Enemies of Promise (1938), in which he attempted to explain why he failed to produce the literary masterpiece which he and others believed he should have been capable of writing. He died in 1974. Since 1976, Connolly's papers and personal library of over 8,000 books have been housed at the University of Tulsa.

Works

- The Rock Pool, 1935
- Enemies of Promise, 1938
- The Unquiet Grave, 1944
- The Condemned Playground, 1945
- Les Pavilions,1962 (with Jerome Zerbe)
- Previous Convictions, 1964
- The Modern Movement: 100 Key Books From England, France, and America, 1880–1950, 1965
- The Evening Colonnade 1973

Trivia

Cyril Connolly is mentioned at the end of the Monty Python song "Eric the Half a Bee".

Reference

- Michael Shelden (1989): Friends of Promise: Cyril Connolly and the World of Horizon, Hamish Hamilton / Harper & Row, ISBN 0-06-016138-8

External links

- [http://home.comcast.net/~dwtaylor1/connolly.html 100 key books]
- [http://www.lib.utulsa.edu/Speccoll/libraries_and_subject.htm#Cyril%20Connolly Connolly Library description at the University of Tulsa]
- [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=10040594 Find-A-Grave profile for Cyril Connolly] Connolly, Cyril Connolly, Cyril Connolly,Cyril Connolly,Cyril

Albert Camus

Albert Camus (November 7, 1913 – January 4, 1960) was a French author and philosopher and one of the principal luminaries of absurdism. Camus was the second youngest-ever recipient of the Nobel Prize for Literature (after Rudyard Kipling) when he received the award in 1957. He is also the shortest-lived of any literature laureate to date, he died in a car crash 3 years after receiving the award.

Early years

Albert Camus was born in Mondovi, Algeria to a French Algerian (pied noir) settler family. His mother was of Spanish extraction. His father, Lucien, died in the Battle of the Marne in 1914 during the First World War, while serving as a member of the Zouave infantry regiment. Camus lived in poor conditions during his childhood in the Belcourt section of Algiers. In 1923, Camus was accepted into the lycée and eventually to the University of Algiers. However, he contracted tuberculosis in 1930, which put an end to his football activities (he had been a goalkeeper for the university team) and forced him to make his studies a part-time pursuit. He took odd jobs including private tutor, car parts clerk, and work for the Meteorological Institute. He completed his licence de philosophie (BA) in 1935; in May of 1936, he successfully presented his thesis on Plotinus, Néo-Platonisme et Pensée Chrétienne for his diplôme d'études supérieures (roughly equivalent to an M.A. by thesis). Camus joined the French Communist Party in 1934, apparently for concern over the political situation in Spain (which eventually resulted in the Spanish Civil War) rather than support for Marxist-Leninist doctrine. In 1936, the independence-minded Algerian Communist Party (PCA) was founded. Camus joined the activities of Le Parti du Peuple Algérien, which got him into trouble with his communist party comrades. As a result, he was denounced as "Trotskyite", which did not endear him to Stalinist communism. In 1934, he married Simone Hie, a morphine addict, but the marriage ended due to Simone's infidelity. In 1935, he founded Théâtre du Travail — "Worker's Theatre" — (renamed Théâtre de l'Equipe in 1937), which survived until 1939. From 1937 to 1939, he wrote for a socialist paper, Alger-Republicain, and his work included an account of the peasants who lived in Kabylie in poor conditions, which apparently cost him his job. From 1939 to 1940, he briefly wrote for a similar paper, Soir-Republicain. He was rejected from the French army because of his tuberculosis. He has written 95 novels, and has 500 publications In 1940, Camus married Francine Faure and he began to work for Paris-Soir magazine. In the first stage of World War II, the so-called Phony War stage, Camus was a pacifist. However, he was in Paris to witness how the Wehrmacht took over. On December 19, 1941, Camus witnessed the birth of Gabriel Peri, an event which Camus later said crystallized his revolt against the Germans. Afterwards he moved to Bordeaux alongside the rest of the staff of Paris-Soir. In this year he finished his first books, The Stranger and The Myth of Sisyphus. He returned briefly to Oran, Algeria in 1942.

Literary career

During the war Camus joined the French Resistance cell Combat, which published an underground newspaper of the same name. This group worked against the Nazis, and in it Camus assumed the moniker "Beauchard". Camus became the paper's editor in 1943, and when the Allies liberated Paris Camus reported on the last of the fighting. He eventually resigned from Combat in 1947, when it became a commercial paper. It was here that he became acquainted with Jean-Paul Sartre, a famous existentialist. After the war, Camus became one member of Sartre's entourage and frequented Café de Flore on the Boulevard St. Germain in Paris. Camus also toured the United States to lecture about French existentialism. Although he leaned left politically, his strong criticisms of communist doctrine did not win him any friends in the communist parties and eventually also alienated Sartre. In 1949 his tuberculosis returned and he lived in seclusion for two years. In 1951 he published The Rebel, a philosophical analysis of rebellion and revolution which made clear his rejection of communism. The book upset many of his colleagues and contemporaries in France and led to the final split with Sartre. The dour reception depressed him and he began instead to translate plays. Camus's most significant contribution to philosophy was his idea of the absurd, the result of our desire for clarity and meaning within a world and condition that offers neither, which he explained in The Myth of Sisyphus and incorporated into many of his other works, such as The Plague. In the 1950s Camus devoted his efforts to human rights. In 1952 he resigned from his work for UNESCO when the UN accepted Spain as a member under the leadership of General Franco. In 1953 he was one of the few leftists who criticized Soviet methods to crush a worker's strike in East Berlin. In 1956 he protested similar methods in Hungary. He maintained his pacifism and resistance to capital punishment everywhere in the world. One of his most significant contributions was an essay collaboration with Koestler, the writer, intellectual, and founder of the League Against Capital Punishment. When the Algerian War of Independence began in 1954 it presented a moral dilemma for Camus. He identified with pied-noirs, and defended the French government on the grounds that revolt of its North African colony was really an integral part of the 'new Arab imperialism' led by Egypt and an 'anti-Western' offensive orchestrated by Russia to 'encircle Europe' and 'isolate the United States' (Actuelles III: Chroniques Algeriennes, 1939-1958). Although favouring greater Algerian autonomy or even federation, though not full-scale independence, he believed that the pied-noirs and Arabs could co-exist. During the war he advocated civil truce that would spare the civilians, which was rejected by both sides who regarded it as foolish. Behind the scenes, he began to work clandestinely for imprisoned Algerians who faced the death penalty. From 1955 to 1956 Camus wrote for L'Express. In 1957 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in literature, officially not for his novel The Fall, published the previous year, but for his writings against capital punishment in the essay "Réflexions Sur la Guillotine". When he spoke to students at the University of Stockholm, he defended his apparent inactivity in the Algerian question and stated that he was worried what could happen to his mother who still lived in Algeria. Apparently French left-wing intellectuals used this as another pretext to ostracize him. University of Stockholm Camus died on January 4, 1960 in a car accident near Sens, in a place named "Le Grand Frossard". Ironically, Camus had uttered a remark earlier in his life that the most absurd way to die would be in a car accident. The driver of the Facel Vega, Michel Gallimard -- his publisher and close friend -- also perished in the accident. Camus was interred in the Lourmarin Cemetery, Lourmarin, Vaucluse, Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France. He was survived by his twin children, Catherine and Jean, who hold the copyrights to his work.

Summary of Absurdism

Many writers have written on the Absurd, each with his or her own interpretation of what the Absurd actually is and their own ideas on the importance of the Absurd. For example, Sartre does little more than acknowledge it while Kierkegaard bases the existence of the God on the fact of the absurd. Camus was not the originator of Absurdism and regretted the continued reference to him as the philosopher of the absurd. To distinguish Camus's ideas of the Absurd from those of other philosophers, people sometimes refer to the Paradox of the Absurd, when referring to Camus's Absurd. His early thoughts on the Absurd appeared in his first collection of essays, L'Envers et l'endroit (The Wrong Side and the Right Side) in 1937. Absurd themes appeared with more sophistication in his second collection of essays, Noces (Nuptials), in 1938. In these essays Camus does not offer a philosophical account of the Absurd, or even a definition; rather he reflects on the experience of the Absurd. In 1942 he publishes Le Mythe de Sisyphe (The Myth of Sisyphus), a literary essay on the Absurd. He had also written a play about a Roman Emperor, Caligula, pursuing an Absurd logic. However, the play was not performed until 1945. The turning point in Camus's attitude to the Absurd occurs in a collection of letters to a fictitious German friend, published in the newspaper Combat. What are Camus's ideas on the Absurd? In the essays he presented us with dualisms; happiness and sadness, dark and light, life and death, etc. He wanted us to face up to the fact that both happiness and sadness are fleeting and that we will die. He did this not to be morbid, but so we can love life and enjoy our happiness when it occurs. In Le Myth, Camus was interested in how we experience the Absurd and how we live with it. Camus' work on the Absurd was intended to promote a public debate. His various offerings entice us to think about the Absurd and offer our own contribution. Concepts such as cooperation, joint effort and solidarity are of key importance to Camus. In the essay Enigma, Camus expressed his frustration at being labeled a philosopher of the absurd. None of his previous work was intended to be a definitive account of his thoughts on the Absurd, although the Le Mythe de Sisyphe is often mistaken as such.

Famous works

Novels

- The Stranger (L'Étranger, also translated as The Outsider) (1942)
- The Plague (La Peste) (1947)
- The Fall (La Chute) (1956)
- A Happy Death (La Mort heureuse) (early version of The Stranger, published posthumously 1970)
- The First Man (Le premier homme) (incomplete, published posthumously 1995)

Short stories

- Exile and the Kingdom (L'exil et le royaume) (1957)
- The Guest
- La Femme Adultère (1954)

Non-fiction

- Betwixt and Between (L'envers et l'endroit, also translated as The Wrong Side and the Right Side) (collection, 1937)
- Neither Victim Nor Executioner (Combat) (1946)
- The Myth of Sisyphus (Le Mythe de Sisyphe) (1942)
- The Rebel (L'Homme révolté) (1951)
- Notebooks 1935-1942 (Carnets, mai 1935 -- fevrier 1942) (1962)
- Notebooks 1943-1951 (1965)
- Nuptials (Noces)

Plays

- Caligula (performed 1945, written 1938)
- The Misunderstanding (Le Malentendu) (1944)
- State of Siege (L'État de siège) (1948)
- The Just Assassins (Les Justes) (1949)

Collections

- Youthful Writings
- Resistance, Rebellion, and Death (1961 - Collection of essays selected by the author)

Movies

- Luchino Visconti made a movie of The Stranger in 1967, starring Marcello Mastroianni.
- Luis Puenzo and Felix Monti were responsible for a modern day rendition of The Plague in 1991. The film starred William Hurt.

Bibliography

- Heiner Wittmann, Albert Camus. Kunst und Moral. Dialoghi/Dialogues. Literatur und Kultur Italiens und Frankreichs. Hrsg. Dirk Hoeges, Peter Lang, Frankfurt/M u.a. 2002

External links

- [http://nobelprize.org/literature/laureates/1957/ Nobel Prize in Literature (1957) Link]
- [http://www.tameri.com/csw/exist/camus.shtml Existentialism and Albert Camus]
- [http://archive.salon.com/books/feature/2004/11/01/camus/print.html "The Rebel" at Salon.com]
- [http://www.che-lives.com/home/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=125 The Absurd Hero & The Ruthless Critic]
- [http://www.thenation.com/doc.mhtml?i=20040405&s=jacoby&c=1 "Accidental Friends" the story of the Camus-Sartre friendship and very public breakup]
- http://www.romanistik.info/camus.html (in German)
- [http://ceh.kitoba.com/hook/camus.html Camus's Choice: An Existential (Humanist) Antiplot]
- [http://www.3ammagazine.com/litarchives/2003/jan/interview_catherine_camus.html Interview with daughter Catherine - 3AM]
- [http://www.spikemagazine.com/0397camu.php Another interview with daughter Catherine - Spike]
- [http://www.anselm.edu/homepage/dbanach/sisyphus.htm The Myth of Sysiphus]
- [http://atheisme.free.fr/Biographies/Camus_e.htm Biography and quotes of Albert Camus]
- [http://www.camus-society.com Albert Camus Society UK] Camus, Albert Camus, Albert Camus, Albert Camus, Albert Camus, Albert Camus, Albert Camus, Albert Camus, Albert Camus, Albert Camus, Albert Camus, Albert Camus, Albert Camus, Albert ko:알베르 카뮈 ja:アルベール・カミュ

Ernest Hemingway

Ernest Miller Hemingway (July 21, 1899 – July 2, 1961) was an American novelist and short story writer whose works, drawn from his wide range of experiences in World War I, the Spanish Civil War, and World War II, are characterized by terse minimalism and understatement; they exerted a significant influence on the development of twentieth century fiction. Hemingway's protagonists are typically stoic male individuals, often interpreted as projections of his own character, who must master "grace under pressure". Many of his works, like The Sun Also Rises, A Farewell to Arms and The Old Man and the Sea, are now considered classics in the canon of American literature. Hemingway was part of the 1920s expatriate community in Paris, known as "The Lost Generation," a name coined and popularized by Gertrude Stein. Leading a turbulent social life, Hemingway married four times, apart from various romantic relationships he formed during his lifetime, and received much media exposure. Hemingway received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1954, seven years before his death by suicide in 1961.

Early life

1961 Hemingway was born at 8:00 A.M. on July 21, 1899 in Oak Park, Illinois, in a six-bedroom Victorian house built by his maternal grandfather, Ernest Hall, an English immigrant and Civil War veteran who lived with the family when Ernest was born. Hemingway's physician father, "Doctor Ed" Clarence Hemingway, attended to the birth of Ernest and subsequently blew a horn on his front porch, announcing to the Hemingways' neighbors that his wife had borne a baby boy. Hemingway was the firstborn son, the second of six children to Doctor Clarence "Ed" and Grace Hemingway, a homemaker with considerable singing talent who had once aspired to a career on stage. She was trained from her youth to sing opera and earned money through giving voice and music lessons as well as recitals. His mother was also domineering and devoutly religious, mirroring the strict Protestant ethic of Oak Park, which Hemingway later said had "wide lawns and narrow minds". His mother had wanted to bear twins, and when this did not happen, she dressed young Ernest and his sister Marcelline (eighteen months his senior) in similar clothes and with similar hairstyles, maintaining the pretense of the two children being "twins." Grace Hemingway further feminized Hemingway in his youth by calling him "Ernestine". While his mother had ambitions that her son would develop an interest in music, Hemingway adopted the interests of his father—hunting and fishing in the woods and lakes of northern Michigan. Owning a house, called Windemere, on Michigan's Walloon Lake, his family would often spend summers vacationing in that state. These early experiences in close contact with nature would instill in Hemingway a lifelong passion for outdoor adventure and for living in areas of the world generally considered remote or isolated.

First writing experiences

During his years at Oak Park and River Forest High School, in addition to being active as a boxer and a football player, he excelled academically, particularly in English classes. His first experience with writing came in high school, as he served as editor for both Trapeze and Tabula, the school's newspaper and literary magazine, respectively. When Hemingway graduated from high school, he did not pursue a college education. Instead, in 1916, when he was 17 years old, his professional writing career began. He earned a position as a cub reporter for The Kansas City Star. While he remained part of the staff at that newspaper for only about six months, throughout his lifetime he used the admonition from the Stars style guide as a foundation for his manner of writing: "Use short sentences. Use short first paragraphs. Use vigorous English. Be positive, not negative".
World War I until the Spanish Civil War
style guide Hemingway left his reporting job after only a few months, and, against his father's wishes, tried to join the United States Army to assist in the effort in World War I. He did not pass the medical examination due to poor vision. Instead, he joined the American Field Service ambulance Corps and left for Italy, then mired in the war. En route to the Italian front, he stopped in Paris, which was under constant bombardment from German artillery. Instead of staying in the relative safety of the Hotel Florida, Hemingway tried to get as close to the combat as possible. Soon after arriving on the Italian front, he began to witness the brutalities of the war; on his first day of duty, an ammunition factory near Milan suffered an explosion. Hemingway had to pick up the human remains, mostly of women who had worked at the factory. This first and extremely cruel encounter with human death left him shaken. The soldiers he met later did not lighten the horror; for example, one of them, Eric Dorman-Smith, quoted to him a line from Part Two of Shakespeare's Henry IV: By my troth, I care not; a man can die but once; we owe god a death...and let it go which way it will, he that dies this year is quit for the next. (Hemingway, for his part, would conjure this very same Shakespearean line in The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber, one of his later famous African short stories.) In another instance, a 50-year-old soldier, to whom Hemingway said, "You're troppo vecchio for this war, pop," replied, "I can die as well as any man". At the Italian front on July 8, 1918, Hemingway was wounded delivering supplies to soldiers, ending his career as an ambulance driver. The exact details of this attack are not known, but two facts are certain: Hemingway was hit by an Austrian trench mortar shell which left fragments in both of his legs, and he was subsequently awarded the Silver Medal of Military Valor (medaglia d'argento) from the Italian government. Later transferred to the Italian infantry, he was seriously injured in combat. government After this experience, Hemingway convalesced in a Milan hospital run by the American Red Cross. There he was to meet a nurse, Sister Agnes von Kurowsky of Washington, D.C., one of 18 nurses attending groups of 4 patients each. Hemingway fell in love with Kurowsky, who was more than 6 years older than him, but this first relationship did not last. After he returned to the United States, she fell in love with and married another man.
Literary aftermath of WWI

First novels and other early works
Once discharged from the Italian army, Hemingway returned to Oak Park. In 1920, he took a job in Toronto, Canada at the Toronto Star as a freelancer, staff writer, and foreign correspondent. About this time, Hemingway met Canada's young literary prodigy Morley Callaghan, who also was a cub reporter at the same paper. Callaghan, who respected Hemingway's work, showed his own stories to him and Hemingway praised it as fine work. In 1921, Hemingway married his first wife, Hadley Richardson. Not long after the two were married, Hemingway indeed had a scandalous affair with a woman by the name of Deborah Houston. They truly were in love, but Hemingway could not at the time go through with pursuing the relationship. On the other hand, the Hemingways decided to live abroad for a time, and, at the advice of Sherwood Anderson, they settled, along with Morley Callaghan and F. Scott Fitzgerald, in Paris; there Hemingway covered the Greco-Turkish War for the Star. After the 1922 publication and American banning of colleague James Joyce's Ulysses, Hemingway used Toronto-based friends to smuggle copies of the novel into the United States. Hemingway's own first book, called Three Stories and Ten Poems (1923), was published in Paris by Robert McAlmon. In the same year, during a brief return to Toronto, Hemingway's first son, John, was born. Busy supporting a family, he became bored with the Toronto Star and resigned on January 1, 1924. 1924) was a long-time mentor of Hemingway and served as an important influence on his style and literary development.]] Hemingway's American debut in literature is often associated with the publication of the short story collection In Our Time (1925). The vignettes that now constitute the interchapters of the American version were initially published in Europe as in our time (1924). This work was important for Hemingway, reaffirming to him that his minimalist style could be accepted by the literary community. "The Big Two-Hearted River" is the collection's best-known story. After Hemingway's return to Paris, Anderson gave him a letter of introduction to Gertrude Stein. She became his mentor and introduced Hemingway to the "Parisian Modern Movement" then ongoing in Montparnasse Quarter; this was the beginnings of the American expatriate circle that became known as the Lost Generation, a term coined by Stein. The group often frequented Sylvia Beach's bookshop, Shakespeare & Co., at 18 Rue de l'Odéon. Hemingway's other influential mentor was Ezra Pound, the founder of imagism. Hemingway later said in reminiscence of this eclectic group: Ezra was right half the time, and when he was wrong, he was so wrong you were never in any doubt about it. Gertrude was always right. Hemingway's favorite restaurant in Montparnasse was La Closerie des Lilas. It was here, in just over 6 weeks, that he wrote his second novel, The Sun Also Rises (1926). The novel, semi-autobiographical in that it follows a group of expatriate Americans in Europe, was successful and was met with much critical acclaim. While Hemingway had initially claimed that the novel was an obsolete form of literature, he was apparently inspired to write one after reading Fitzgerald's manuscript for The Great Gatsby. Hemingway divorced Hadley Richardson and married Pauline Pfeiffer, a devout Roman Catholic from Piggott, Arkansas, in 1927. That year saw the publication of Men Without Women, a collection of short stories, containing "The Killers," one of Hemingway's best-known and most-anthologized stories. The Killers In 1928, Hemingway's father, Clarence, troubled with diabetes and financial instabilities, committed suicide using an old Civil War pistol. This suicide was a great pain to Hemingway; he immediately traveled to Oak Park to arrange the funeral. Another suicide was of Harry Crosby, founder of the Black Sun Press and friend of Hemingway from his days in Paris. Also in 1928 Hemingway's second son, Patrick, was born in Kansas City. It was a Caesarean birth after difficult labor, details that were incorporated into the concluding scene of his novel. The last important work associated with the period following World War I is Hemingway's third novel, A Farewell to Arms (1929). It details the romance between Frederic Henry, an American soldier, and Catherine Barkley, a British nurse. The novel is heavily autobiographical in nature: the plot is directly inspired by his experience with Sister von Kurowsky in Milan; the intense labor pains of his second wife, Pauline, in the birth of Hemingway's son Patrick inspired Catherine's labor in the novel; the real-life Kitty Cannell inspired the fictional Helen Ferguson; the priest was based on Don Giuseppe Bianchi, the priest of the 69th and 70th regiments of the Brigata Ancona. While the inspiration of the character Rinaldi is mysterious, curiously, he had already appeared in In Our Time. A Farewell to Arms was published at a time when many other World War I books were prominent, including Frederic Manning's Her Privates We, Erich Maria Remarque's All Quiet on the Western Front, Richard Aldington's Death of a Hero, and Robert Graves' Goodbye to All That. A Farewell to Armss success rendered Hemingway essentially independent financially.

The (First) Forty Nine Stories

Several of Hemingway's most famous short stories were written in the period following the war; in 1938—along with his only full-length play, entitled The Fifth Column—49 such stories were published in the collection The Fifth Column and the First Forty-Nine Stories. Hemingway's intention was, as he openly stated in his own foreword to the collection, to write more. Many of the stories that make up this collection can be found in other abridged collections, including In Our Time, Men Without Women, Winner Take Nothing, and The Snows of Kilimanjaro. Some of the collection's important stories include: Old Man at the Bridge, On The Quai at Smyrna, Hills Like White Elephants, One Reader Writes, The Killers and (perhaps most famously) A Clean, Well-Lighted Place. While these stories are rather short, the book also includes much longer stories. Among these the most famous are The Snows of Kilimanjaro and The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber. Only one other story collection by Hemingway appeared during his lifetime, entitled Four Stories Of The Spanish Civil War; "The Denunciation" is the most notable story therein. The Nick Adams Stories appeared posthumously in 1972. What is now considered the definitive compilation of all of Hemingway's short stories is published as The Complete Short Stories Of Ernest Hemingway, first compiled and published in 1987.

Early critical interplay

Hemingway's early works sold well and were generally received favorably by critics. This success elicited some crude and pretentious behavior from Hemingway, even in these formative years of his career. For example, he began to tell F. Scott Fitzgerald how to write; he also claimed that the English novelist Ford Madox Ford was sexually impotent. Hemingway in turn was the subject of much criticism. The journal Bookman attacked him as a dirty writer. According to Fitzgerald, McAlmon, the publisher of his first non-commercial book, labeled Hemingway "a fag and a wife-beater" and claimed that Pauline was a lesbian. Gertrude Stein criticized him in her book The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas, suggesting that he had derived his prose style from her own and from Sherwood Anderson's. Max Eastman disparaged Hemingway harshly, asking him to "come out from behind that false hair on the chest." Eastman would go on to write an essay entitled Bull in the Afternoon, a satire of Hemingway's Death in the Afternoon. Another facet of Eastman's criticism consisted in the suggestion that Hemingway ought to give up his lonely, tight-lipped stoicism and write about contemporary social affairs. Hemingway did so for at least a short time; his article Who Murdered the Vets? for New Masses, a leftist magazine, and To Have and Have Not displayed a certain heightened social awareness.

Key West

Following the advice of John Dos Passos, Hemingway moved to Key West, Florida where he established his first American home. From his old stone house—a wedding present from Pauline's uncle—Hemingway fished in the Dry Tortugas waters, went to the famous bar Sloppy Joe's, and traveled occasionally to Spain, gathering material for Death in the Afternoon and Winner Take Nothing. Winner Take Nothing Death in the Afternoon a book about bullfighting, was published in 1932. Hemingway had become a bullfighting aficionado after seeing the Pamplona fiesta of 1925, fictionalized in The Sun Also Rises. In Death in the Afternoon, Hemingway extensively discussed the metaphysics of bullfighting: the ritualized, almost religious practice. In his writings on Spain he was influenced by the Spanish master Pío Baroja (when Hemingway won the Nobel Prize, he traveled to see Baroja, then on his death bed, specifically to tell him that he thought Baroja deserved the prize more than him). A safari in the fall of 1932 led him to Mombasa, Nairobi, and Machakos in the Mua Hills. In Spain reporting on the Spanish Civil War, Hemingway broke friendship with John Dos Passos because Dos Passos kept reporting despite warning on the atrocities, not only of the Fascists who Hemingway disliked, but also of the Republicans who Hemingway favored ("The Breaking Point: Hemingway, Dos Passos, and the Murder of Jose Robles" by Stephen Koch, published 2005 ISBN 1582432805) and The Spanish Civil War (1961) by Hugh Thomas). The story "The Denunciation" [http://www.nytimes.com/books/99/07/04/specials/hemingway-fifth.html] seems autobiographical, thus suggesting that the author might have been an informant for the Republic as well as weapons instructor (The Spanish Civil War (1961) by Hugh Thomas). 1935 saw the publication of Green Hills of Africa, an account of his African safari. The Snows of Kilimanjaro and The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber were the fictionalized results of his African experiences. Some health problems characterized this period of Hemingway's life: an anthrax infection, a cut eyeball, a gash in his forehead, grippe, toothache, hemorrhoids; kidney trouble from fishing in Spain, torn groin muscle, finger gashed to the bone in an accident with a punching ball, lacerations (to arms, legs, and face) from a ride on a runaway horse through a deep Wyoming forest, and a broken arm from a car accident.

For Whom the Bell Tolls

Francisco Franco won the Spanish Civil War in the spring of 1939. Hemingway had lost an adopted homeland to Franco's fascist nationalists, and would later lose his beloved Key West, Florida home due to his 1940 divorce. A few weeks after the divorce Hemingway married his third wife, Martha Gellhorn. His novel For Whom The Bell Tolls was published in 1940; the long work, which takes place during the Spanish Civil War, based on real events (The Spanish Civil War Hugh Thomas) tells of an American man named "Robert Jordan" fighting with Spanish guerrillas on the side of the Republicans. It is one of Hemingway's most notable literary accomplishments.

World War II and its aftermath

The United States entered World War II on December 8, 1941, and for the first time in his life, Hemingway is known to have taken an active part in a war. Aboard the Pilar, now a Q-Ship, Hemingway's crew was charged with sinking Nazi submarines threatening the shipping of the coasts of Cuba and the United States, though there were actually far more professional and successful activities carried out by the US and Cuban navies. As the FBI took over Caribbean counter-espionage, he went to Europe, first as war correspondent for Collier's magazine. Hemingway took part in the D-Day invasion of France as a correspondent on a landing craft. Later, at Villedieu-les-Poêles, France, he threw three grenades into a cellar where SS officers were hiding. It was the first time he had killed a man. Seemingly encouraged, he declared he would be an unofficial intelligence unit. Later, he acted as an unofficial liaison officer at Château de Rambouillet, and afterwards, formed his own partisan group which took part in the liberation of Paris, France. Some have argued that Hemingway was trying to emulate the characters he had created in his fiction. After the war, Hemingway started work on The Garden of Eden, which was never finished and would be published posthumously in much abridged form in 1986. At one stage he planned a major trilogy which was to be comprised of "The Sea When Young", "The Sea When Absent" and "The Sea in Being" (the latter eventually published in 1953 as The Old Man and the Sea). There was also a "Sea-Chase" story; three of these pieces were edited and stuck together as the posthumously published novel Islands in the Stream (1970). Hemingway's first novel after For Whom the Bell Tolls was Across the River and Into the Trees (1950), set in World War II Venice. He derived the title from the last words of General Stonewall Jackson. In Across the River and Into the Trees, his now-divorced third wife appeared as the third wife of the protagonist, Adriana Ivancich, as in his lover Renata (which means "Reborn" in Latin). The novel received poor reviews, many of which accused Hemingway of bad taste, stylistic ineptitude and sentimentality. Perhaps the last charge was most true, and fit an emerging pattern: Hemingway was growing old.

Later years

One section of the above-mentioned sea trilogy was published as The Old Man and the Sea in 1952. That novella's enormous success satisfied and fulfilled Hemingway, probably for the last time in his life. It earned him both the Pulitzer Prize in 1953 and the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1954, and restored his international reputation. Then, his legendary bad luck struck once again; on a safari he was in two successive plane crashes. Hemingway's injuries were serious; he sprained his right shoulder, arm, and left leg, had a grave concussion, temporarily lost vision in his left eye and hearing in his left ear, had paralysis of the sphincter, a crushed vertebra, ruptured liver, spleen and kidney, and first degree burns on his face, arms, and leg. As if this were not enough, he was badly injured one month later in a bushfire accident which left him with second degree burns on his legs, front torso, lips, left hand and right forearm. The pain left him in prolonged anguish, and he was unable to travel to Stockholm to accept his Nobel Prize. A glimmer of hope came with the discovery of some of his old manuscripts from 1928 in the Ritz cellars, which were transformed into A Moveable Feast. Although some of his energy seemed to be restored, severe drinking problems kept him down. His blood pressure and cholesterol count were perilously high, he suffered from aortal inflammation, and his depression, aggravated by alcoholism, was worsening. He also lost his Finca Vigía, his estate outside Havana, Cuba that he had owned for over twenty years, and was forced to "exile" to Ketchum, Idaho, when the situation in Cuba began to escalate. The famous photograph of Fidel Castro and Hemingway, nominally related to a fishing competition which Castro won, is believed to document a conversation in which Hemingway begged for the return of his estate and Castro ignored him. His very last years, 1960 and 1961, were marked by severe paranoia. He feared FBI agents would be after him if Cuba turned to the Russians, that the "Feds" (Burgess (9.), p. ??) would be checking his bank account, and that they wanted to arrest him for gross immorality and carrying alcohol. The FBI was in fact surveying Hemingway due to his activities in Cuba. On 26 February 1960, Ernest Hemingway was not able to get his novel The Dangerous Summer to the publishers. Therefore, he had his wife, Mary Welsh Hemingway summon his friend, LIFE Magazine Bureau Head, Will Lang Jr. to leave Paris and come to Spain. Hemingway persuaded Will Lang Jr. to let him print the manuscript, along with a picture layout before it came out in hardcover. Although not a word of it was on paper, Ernest agreed to the proposal. The first part of story appeared in LIFE Magazine on September 5, 1960. The other installments were printed on the following issues of LIFE. Hemingway was upset by perfectly normal photographs in his The Dangerous Summer article. He was receiving treatment in Ketchum, Idaho for high blood pressure and liver problems—and also electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) for depression and his continued paranoia. Hemingway was friendly with the World War II British General Eric Dorman-Smith, who was a godfather to one of his children.

Death

Hemingway attempted suicide in the spring of 1961, and received ECT treatment again, but this was unable to prevent his suicide on the morning of July 2, 1961 as a result of a self-inflicted shotgun blast to the head at the age of 61. Prior to his suicide, Hemingway is known to have blamed his loss of self on ECT. Many members of Hemingway's immediate family also committed suicide, including his father, Clarence Hemingway, and his siblings Ursula and Leicester. It is believed that some members of Hemingway's paternal line had a genetic condition or hereditary disease known as haemochromatosis, in which an excess of iron concentration in the blood causes damage to the pancreas and depression or instability in the cerebrum. Hemingway's physician father is known to have developed bronze diabetes due to this condition in the years prior to his suicide at age fifty-nine. Hemingway is said to have donated his entire Cuban estate to Fidel Castro. However, considering that Castro confiscated all US property, it is widely believed that Castro took La Vigia estate, and that the famous photograph of Castro and Hemingway relates to an attempt of Hemingway to recover his property. Regardless, Hemingway did not stay on the Island and never returned to Cuba. He is interred in the Ketchum Cemetery in Ketchum, Idaho. The local public elementary school there is named in his honor. In 1996, his granddaughter, actress Margaux Hemingway, took her own life with a drug overdose; she is interred in the same cemetery.

Posthumous publications

Hemingway was still writing new works up to the time of his death in 1961. All of these unfinished works which were Hemingway's sole creation have been published posthumously; they are Islands in the Stream, The Dangerous Summer, and The Garden of Eden. In a note forwarding "Islands in the Stream" Mary Hemingway indicated that she worked with Charles Scribner, Jr. on "preparing this book for publication from Ernest's original manuscript." In that note she stated that "beyond the routine chores of correcting spelling and punctuation, we made some cuts in the manuscript, I feeling that Ernest would surely have made them himself. The book is all Ernest's. We have added nothing to it." Controversy has surrounded the publication of these works, insofar as it has been suggested that it is not necessarily within the jurisdiction of Hemingway's relatives or publishers to determine whether these works should be made available to the public. For example, scholars often disapprovingly note that the version of The Garden of Eden published by Charles Scribner's Sons in 1986, though in no way a revision of Hemingway's original words, nonetheless does not include some two-thirds of the original manuscript. In 1999, another novel entitled True at First Light appeared under the name of Ernest Hemingway, though it was heavily edited by his son Patrick Hemingway. The Associated Press reported in February 2005 on the progress of what is purported to be the final work to be posthumously published that was written by Hemingway. Entitled Under Kilimanjaro, the novel is a fictional account of Hemingway's final African safari in 1953–1954. He spent several months in Kenya with his fourth wife, Mary, before his near-fatal plane crashes took place. Anticipation of the novel, whose manuscript was completed in 1956, adumbrates perhaps an unprecedentedly large critical battle over whether it is proper to publish the work (many sources mention that a new, light side of Hemingway will be seen as opposed to his canonical, macho image), even as editors Robert W. Lewis of University of North Dakota and Robert E. Fleming of University of New Mexico have pushed it through to publication; the novel was published on September 15 2005. Also published after Hemingway's death were several collections of his work as a journalist. These collections contain his columns and articles for Esquire Magazine, The North American Newspaper Alliance, and the Toronto Star; they include Byline: Ernest Hemingway edited by William White, and Hemingway: The Wild Years edied by Gene Z. Hanrahan.

Influence and legacy

The influence of Hemingway's writings on American literature was considerable and continues to exist today. Indeed, the influence of Hemingway's style was so widespread that it may be glimpsed in most contemporary fiction, as writers draw inspiration either from Hemingway himself or indirectly through writers who more consciously emulated Hemingway's style. In his own time, Hemingway affected writers within his modernist literary circle. James Joyce called "A Clean, Well Lighted Place" "one of the best stories ever written". Pulp fiction and "hard boiled" crime fiction (which flourished from the 1920s to the 1950s) often owed a strong debt to Hemingway. Hemingway's terse prose style is known to have inspired Bret Easton Ellis, Chuck Palahniuk, Douglas Coupland and many Generation X writers. Hemingway's style also influenced Jack Kerouac and other Beat Generation writers. J.D. Salinger is said to have wanted to be a great American short story writer in the same vein as Hemingway. In Latin American literature, Hemingway's impact can perhaps best be seen in the work of Gabriel García Márquez, who, for instance, often uses the sea as a central image in his fiction. Science fiction novelist Joe Haldeman won the Hugo Award and the Nebula Award for his novella, The Hemingway Hoax, a story which explored the effect that Hemingway's lost stories might have had upon 20th century history. In 1999, Michael Palin retraces the footsteps of Hemingway, one hundred years after his birth of his favorite writer. The journey takes him through many sites that were frequented by Hemingway. The sites included Chicago, Paris, Italy, Africa, Key West, Cuba, and Idaho. This results into a book and a television documentary: Michael Palin's Hemingway Adventure, which can be completely read, at no charge, at his [http://www.palinstravels.co.uk/ website].

Awards and honors

During his lifetime Hemingway was awarded with:
- Silver Medal of Military Valor (medaglia d'argento) in World War I
- Bronze Star (War Correspondent-Military Irregular in World War II) in 1947
- Pulitzer Prize in 1953 (for The Old Man and the Sea)
- Nobel Prize in Literature in 1954 (The Old Man and the Sea cited as a reason for the award)

Trivia

Sailors were long-known to especially value polydactyl cats (which have extra toes as a genetic trait) for their extraordinary climbing and hunting abilities as an aid in controlling shipboard rodents. Some sailors also considered them to be extremely good luck when at sea. Hemingway was one of the more famous lovers of polydactyl cats. He was first given a six-toed cat by a ship's captain. As provided in his will, his former home in Key West, Florida (which is now a popular museum) currently houses approximately sixty descendents of his cats, approximately 50% of whom are polydactyl.

Works

Novels

- (1925) The Torrents of Spring
- (1926) The Sun Also Rises
- (1929) A Farewell to Arms
- (1937) To Have and Have Not
- (1940) For Whom the Bell Tolls
- (1950) Across the River and Into the Trees
- (1952) The Old Man and the Sea
- (1962) Adventures of a Young Man
- (1970) Islands in the Stream (Hemingway)
- (1986) The Garden of Eden
- (1999) True at First Light
- (2005) Under Kilimanjaro

Nonfiction

- (1932) Death in the Afternoon
- (1935) Green Hills of Africa
- (1960) The Dangerous Summer
- (1964) A Moveable Feast

Short story collections

- (1923) Three Stories and Ten Poems
- (1925) In Our Time
- (1927) Men Without Women
- (1932) The Snows of Kilimanjaro
- (1933) Winner Take Nothing
- (1938) The Fifth Column and the First Forty-Nine Stories
- (1947) The Essential Hemingway
- (1953) The Hemingway Reader
- (1972) The Nick Adams Stories
- (1976) The Complete Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway
- (1995) Collected Stories

Film

- (1937) The Spanish Earth
- (1962) Adventures Of A Young Man is based on Hemingway's Nick Adams stories. (also known as Hemingway's Adventures Of A Young Man.)

Notes

# From [http://www.lostgeneration.com/childhood.htm Childhood] at The Hemingway Resource Center. # Three different sources disagree on how long this habit of his mother's lasted. A note from [http://www.pbs.org/hemingwayadventure/michigan.html a PBS lecture series] states that it lasted for two years; [http://www.cigaraficionado.com/Cigar/CA_Profiles/People_Profile/0,2540,15,00.html Grauer] claims she stopped when he was 6; [http://www.harpercollins.com.au/drstephenjuan/0208news.htm Juan's analysis] suggests that her treatment continued "well into his teens;" he also claims that at times she would attempt to liken Hemingway to his older sister Marcelline. # A large list of such anecdotes are compiled at [http://www.kcstar.com/hemingway/ the centennial commemoration page of the Kansas City Star]. # Burgess, 1978, p. 24. # Ibid. # On August 10, 1943, Hemingway typed a letter to Archibald MacLeish discussing Pound's mental health and other literary matters. # In a conversation with John Peale Bishop, quoted in Hemingway, Cowley, ed, 1944, p. xiii. # Burgess, 1978, p. 57. # Ibid. # Information about these posthumous Hemingway works was taken from Charles Scribner, Jr.'s 1987 Preface to The Garden of Eden. # [http://www.bookrags.com/shortguide-garden_of_eden/ BookRags] makes this quantitative note; it also reveals some more information about the publication of The Garden of Eden and offers some discussion of thematic content. # [http://upress.kent.edu/books/Hemingway.htm The Kent State University Press] is the official source for this new novel's release. # See the [http://www.und.edu/dept/our/dimensions/march2005/2.html University of North Dakota] feature of editor Robert W. Lewis, for example.

References

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- Burgess, Anthony (1978). Ernest Hemingway and His World. Norwich: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0684185040.
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External links

- [http://www.timelesshemingway.com Timeless Hemingway]
- [http://www.onetruesentence.com One True Sentence: A Blog Devoted to EH]
- [http://www.pbs.org/hemingwayadventure Michael Palin's Hemingway Adventure] Based on a PBS lecture series narrated by Michael Palin.
- [http://www.hemingwaysociety.org The Hemingway Society]
- [http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/books/1999/hemingway/index.html CNN: A Hemingway Retrospective]
- [http://www.einstein-hemingway-shows.com Ernest Hemingway One Man Show]
- [http://www.retortmagazine.com/05/id_09_05_dan_schneider.htm Review of The Complete Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway]
- [http://www.litencyc.com/php/sworks.php?rec=true&UID=7857 Review of The Sun Also Rises]
- [http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/oldman/ SparkNotes of The Old Man And The Sea]
- [http://www.hemingwayhome.com/ Ernest Hemingway Home and Museum in Key West, Florida, official website]
- [http://www.briangordonsinclair.com/hemingway.htm Hemingway on Stage] Hemingway, Ernest Hemingway, Ernest Hemingway, Ernest Hemingway, Ernest Hemingway, Ernest Hemingway, Ernest Hemingway, Ernest Hemingway, Ernest Hemingway, Ernest Hemingway, Ernest Hemingway, Ernest Category:Famous_drinkers
- Hemingway, Ernest Hemingway, Ernest Hemingway, Ernest Hemingway, Ernest Hemingway, Ernest ko:어니스트 헤밍웨이 ja:アーネスト・ヘミングウェイ simple:Ernest Hemingway

Category:Literary criticism

Category:Literature

Arnika (občanské sdružení)

Arnika je české občanské sdružení zaměřené na ochranu životního prostředí. ochranu životního prostředí Arnika byla založena 29. září 2001, kdy ze sdružení Děti Země odešla část vedení. Dnes Arnika působí v osmi městech České republiky a je zapojena do činnosti několika zahraničních ekologických sítí (např. International POPs Elimination Network či European Rivers Network). Jako své poslání uvádí Arnika zlepšení stavu životního prostředí, jeho obranu před znečišťováním, ochranu a obnovu přírodních hodnot na území ČR, a to i v evropském kontextu. Činnost Arniky lze rozdělit do tří tematických programů:
- ochrana přírody (mj. kampaň na záchranu Labského údolí před výstavbou jezů, podpora soustavy Natura 2000 či kampaň proti stavbě přehrady v Nových Heřminovech na řece Opavě)
- toxické látky a odpady (mj. kampaň Budoucnost bez jedů, podpora používání recyklovaného papíru či kampaň proti PVC ve zdravotnictví)
- Centrum pro podporu občanů (pomoc občanům při ochraně jejich životního prostředí, například projekt Veřejnost proti dálnici D3) Vedení Arniky tvoří tzv. Užší rada:
- 2001 - 2004 předseda Vlastimil Karlík, místopředsedové Jindřich Petrlík a Petr Hrdina
- 2004 - dnes předseda Jindřich Petrlík, místopředsedové Martin Skalský a Vlastimil Karlík

Externí odkazy

- [http://www.arnika.org Stránky sdružení Arnika] Kategorie:Ochrana přírody

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Neo-Pagan (literature)

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Cyril Connolly

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Albert Camus

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Category:Literary criticism

Arnika (občanské sdružení)

Externí odkazy

Geography

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